CHAPTER II

WOODCRAFT

Trees. Practical Use of Compass. Direction of Wind. Star Guiding. What to Do When Lost in the Woods. How to Chop Wood. How to Fell Trees.

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Trees

While on the trail you will find a knowledge of trees most useful, and you should be able to recognize different species by their manner of growth, their bark and foliage.

Ink impressions of leaves.

Ink impressions of leaves.

 
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Balsam-Fir

One of the most important trees for the trailer to know is the balsam-fir, for of this the best of outdoor beds are made. In shape the tree is like our Christmas-trees—in fact, many Christmas-trees are balsam-fir.

The sweet, aromatic perfume of the balsam needles is a great aid in identifying it. The branches are flat and the needles appear to grow from the sides of the stem. The little twist at the base of the needle causes it to seem to grow merely in the straight, outstanding row on each side of the stem; look closely and you will see the twist.

The needles are flat and short, hardly one inch in length; they are grooved along the top and the ends are decidedly blunt; in color they are dark bluish-green on the upper side and silvery-white underneath. The bark is gray, and you will find little gummy blisters on the tree-trunk. From these the healing Canada balsam is obtained. The short cones, often not over two inches in length, the longest seldom more than four inches, stand erect on top of the small branches, and when young are of a purplish color.

From Maine to Minnesota the balsam-fir grows in damp woods and mountain bogs, and you will find it southward along the Alleghany Mountains from Pennsylvania to North Carolina.


Spruce

The spruce, red, black, and white, differs in many respects from the balsam-fir: the needles are sharp-pointed, not blunt, and instead of being flat like the balsam-fir, they are four-sided and cover the branchlet on all sides, causing it to appear rounded or bushy and not flat. The spruce-gum sought by many is found in the seams of the bark, which, unlike the smooth balsam-fir, is scaly and of a brown color. Early spring is the time to look for spruce-gum. Spruce is a soft wood, splits readily and is good for the frames and ribs of boats, also for paddles and oars, and the bark makes a covering for temporary shelters.


Hemlock

This tree is good for thatching a lean-to when balsam-fir is not to be found, and its bark can be used in the way of shingles.

The cones are small and hang down from the branches; they do not stand up alert like those of the balsam-fir, nor are they purple in color, being rather of a bright red-brown, and when very young, tan color. The wood is not easy to split—don't try it, or your hatchet will suffer in consequence and the pieces will be twisted as a usual thing. The southern variety, however, often splits straight.

Ink impressions of leaves: White oak. Linden.

Ink impressions of leaves.

 

Balsam-Fir. Spruce. Hemlock. Balsam-Fir. Spruce. Hemlock.
Pitch-pine and cone. Sycamore leaf and fruit of sycamore. Pitch-pine and cone. Sycamore leaf and fruit of sycamore.

Pine

The pine-tree accommodates itself to almost any kind of soil, high, low, moist, or dry, often growing along the edge of the water.

The gray pine is sometimes used for making the skeleton of a canoe or other boats, and the white pine for the skin or covering of the skeleton boat; but for you the pine will probably be most useful in furnishing pine-knots, and its soft wood for kindling your outdoor fire.

The trees mentioned abound in our northern forests. The birch in its different varieties is there also, but rarely ventures into the densest woods, preferring to remain near and on its outskirts. However, none of these trees confine themselves strictly to one locality.

Oaks, hickory, chestnut, maples, and sycamore are among the useful woods for campers.

Learn the quality and nature of the different trees. Each variety is distinct from the others: some woods are easy to split, such as spruce, chestnut, balsam-fir, etc.; some very strong, as locust, oak, hickory, sugar-maple, etc.; then there are the hard and soft woods mentioned in fire-making.

When you once understand the characteristics of the different woods, and their special qualifications, becoming familiar with only two or three varieties at a time, the trees will be able to help you according to their special powers. You would not go to a musician to have a portrait painted, for while the musician might give you wonderful music he would be helpless as far as painting a picture was concerned, and so it is with trees. They cannot all give the same thing; if you want soft wood, it is wasting your time to go to hardwood trees; they cannot give you what they do not possess. Know the possibilities of trees and they will not fail you.

How to Chop Wood

How to use the axe. How to use the axe.

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Trailing and camping both mean wood-chopping to some extent for shelters, fires, etc., and the girl of to-day should understand, as did the girls of our pioneer families, how to handle properly a hatchet, or in this case we will make it a belt axe. There is a small hatchet modelled after the Daniel Boone tomahawk, generally known as the "camp axe." It is thicker, narrower, and has a sharper edge than an ordinary hatchet. It comes of a size to wear on the belt and must be securely protected by a well-fitted strong leather sheath; otherwise it will endanger not only the life of the girl who carries it, but also the lives of her companions. With the camp axe (hatchet) you can cut down small trees, chop firewood, blaze trees, drive down pegs or stakes, and chop kindling-wood. Every time you want to use the hatchet take the precaution to examine it thoroughly and reassure yourself that the tool is in good condition and that the head is on firm and tight; be positive of this.

Great caution must be taken when chopping kindling-wood, as often serious accidents occur through ignorance or carelessness. Do not raise one end of a stick up on a log with the other end down on the ground and then strike the centre of the stick a sharp blow with the sharp edge of your hatchet; the stick will break, but one end usually flies up with considerable force and very often strikes the eye of the worker, ruining the sight forever. Take the blunt end of your hatchet and do not give a very hard blow on the stick you wish to break; exert only force sufficient to break it partially, merely enough to enable you to finish the work with your hands and possibly one knee. It may require a little more time, but your eyes will be unharmed, which makes it worth while. Often children use a heavy stone to break kindling-wood, with no disastrous results that I know of. The heavy stone does not seem to cause the wood to fly upward.


How to Chop Logs

Practise on small, slender logs, chopping them in short lengths until you understand something of the woodsman's art of "logging up a tree"; then and not until then should you attempt to cut heavier wood.

If you are sure-footed and absolutely certain that you can stand firmly on the log without teetering or swaying when leaning over, do so. You can then chop one side of the log half-way through and turn around and chop the other side until the second notch or "kerf" is cut through to the first one on the opposite side, and the two pieces fall apart. While working stand on the log with feet wide apart and chop the side of the log (not the top) on the space in front between your feet. Make your first chip quite long, and have it equal in length the diameter of the log. If the chip is short, the opening of the kerf will be narrow and your hatchet will become wedged, obliging you to double your labor by enlarging the kerf. Greater progress will be made by chopping diagonally across the grain of the wood, and the work will be easier. It is difficult to cut squarely against the grain and this is always avoided when possible. After you have cut the first chip in logging up a tree, chop on the base of the chip, swinging your hatchet from the opposite direction, and the chip will fall to the ground.

Having successfully chopped off one piece of the log, it will be a simple matter to cut off more. Chop slowly, easily, and surely. Don't be in a hurry and exhaust yourself; only a novice overexerts and tries to make a deep cut with the hatchet.

Be careful of the blade of your hatchet; keep it free from the ground when chopping, to avoid striking snags, stones, or other things liable to nick or dull the edge.


How to Fell a Tree

Content yourself with chopping down only slender trees, mere saplings, at first, and as you acquire skill, slightly heavier trees can be felled. Begin in the right way with your very first efforts and follow the woodsman's method.

Having selected the tree you desire to cut down, determine in which direction you want it to fall and mark that side, but first make sure that when falling, the tree will not lodge in another one near by or drop on one of the camp shelters. See that the way is free of hindrance before cutting the tree, also clear the way for the swing of your extended hatchet. If there are obstacles, such as vines, bushes, limbs of other trees, or rocks, which your hatchet might strike as you raise and lower it while at work, clear them all away, making a generous open space on all sides, overhead, on the right and left side, and below the swing of the hatchet. Take no chance of having an accident, as would occur should the hatchet become entangled or broken.

You may have noticed that the top surface of most stumps has a splintered ridge across its centre, and on one side of the ridge the wood is lower than on the other; this is because of the manner in which a woodsman fells a tree. If he wants the tree to fall toward the west he marks the west side of the trunk; then he marks the top and bottom of the space he intends chopping out for the first kerf or notch (Fig. 13, A and B), making the length of space a trifle longer than one-half of the tree diameter. The kerf is chopped out by cutting first from the top A, then from the bottom B (Fig. 14). When the first kerf is finished and cut half-way through the tree, space for the kerf on the opposite side of the tree is marked a few inches higher than the first one (Fig. 15, C and D) and then it also is cut (Fig. 16).

After you have chopped the two kerfs in a tree, you will know when it is about to fall by the creaking and the slight movement of its top. Step to one side of the falling tree, never behind or in front of it; either of the last two ways would probably mean death: if in front, the tree would fall on you, and if at the back, you would probably be terribly injured if not killed, as trees often kick backward with tremendous force as they go down; so be on your guard, keep cool, and deliberately step to the side of the tree and watch it fall.

Choose a quiet day, when there is no wind, for tree-felling. You cannot control the wind, and it may control your tree.

Never allow your hatchet to lie on the ground, a menace to every one at camp, but have a particular log or stump and always strike the blade in this wood. Leave your hatchet there, where it will not be injured, can do no harm, and you will always know where to find it (Fig. 17).


Etiquette of the Wild

Translated this means "hands off." The unwritten law of the woods is that personal property cached in trees, underbrush, beneath stones, or hidden underground must never be taken, borrowed, used, or molested.

Canoes and oars will often be discovered left by owners, sometimes fastened at the water's edge, again suspended from trees, and the temptation to borrow may be strong, but remember such an act would be dishonorable and against the rules that govern the outdoor world.

Provisions, tools, or other articles found in the forests should be respected and allowed to remain where they are. It is customary for campers to cache their belongings with the assurance that forest etiquette will be held inviolate and their goods remain unmolested.

Every one has the privilege of examining and enjoying the beauties of mosses, berries, and wild flowers, but do not take these treasures from their homes to die and be thrown aside. Love them well enough to let them stay where they are for others also to enjoy, unless you need specimens for some important special study.

A man who had always lived in the Adirondack forests, and at present is proprietor of an Adirondack hotel, recently reforested many acres of his wooded wild lands by planting through the forests little young trees, some not over one foot high, and his indignation was great when he discovered that many of his guests when off on tramps returned laden with these baby trees, which were easily pulled up by the roots because so lately planted.

Finding Your Way by Natural Signs and the Compass

An important phase of woodcraft is the ability to find your way in the wilderness by means of natural signs as well as the compass. If, however, you do not know at what point of the compass from you the camp lies, the signs can be of no avail. Having this knowledge, the signs will be invaluable.

Get your bearings before leaving camp. Do not depend upon any member of the party, but know for yourself.

If you have a map giving the topography of land surrounding the camping-grounds, consult it. Burn into your memory the direction from camp of outlying landmarks, those near and those as far off as you can see in all directions. The morning you leave camp, ascertain the direction of the wind and notice particularly the sun and shadows. If it is early morning, face the sun and you will be looking toward the east.

Stretch out both arms at your sides and point with your index-fingers; your right finger will point to the south, your left to the north, and your back will be toward the west. What landmarks do you see east of the camp? South? North? West? And from what point of the compass does the wind blow? If it comes from the west and you trail eastward, the wind will strike your back going away from camp and should strike your face returning, provided its direction does not change.

Again, if you go east, your camp will lie west of you, and your homeward path must be westward. Consult your compass and know exactly which direction you take when leaving camp, and blaze your trail as you go, looking backward frequently to see how landmarks should appear as you face them returning.

With all these friends to guide you, first, the map; second, sun; third, shadows; fourth, wind; fifth, compass; sixth, your bent-twig blazing, there will be little, if any, danger of being lost. But you must constantly keep on the alert and refer frequently to these guides, especially when deflecting from the course first taken after leaving camp. At every turning, stop and take your bearings anew; you cannot be too careful.

These signs are for daylight; at night the North Star will be your guide.


Sunlight and Shadow

Bearing in mind that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west, it will be comparatively easy to keep your right course by consulting the sun. A fair idea may also be gained of the time of day by the length of shadows, if you remember that shadows are long in the morning and continue to grow shorter until midday, when they again begin to lengthen, growing longer and longer until night.

To find the direction of the sun on a cloudy day, hold a flat splinter or your knife blade vertically, so that it is absolutely straight up and down. Place the point of the blade on your thumb-nail, watch-case, or other glossy surface; then turn the knife or splinter around until the full shadow of the flat of blade or splinter falls on the bright surface, telling the location of the sun.

An open spot where the sun can cast a clear shadow, and an hour when the sun is not immediately overhead, will give best results.


Wind

The wind generally blows in the same direction all day, and if you learn to understand its ways, the wind will help you keep the right trail. Make a practise of testing the direction of the wind every morning. Notice the leaves on bush and tree, in what direction they move. Place a few bits of paper on your open hand and watch in which way the wind carries them; if there is no paper, try the test with dry leaves, grass, or anything light and easily carried by the breeze. Smoke will also show the direction of the wind.

When the wind is very faint, put your finger in your mouth, wet it on all sides, and hold it up; the side on which the wind blows will feel cool and tell from what quarter the wind comes: if on the east side of your finger, the wind blows from the east, and so on. Keep testing the direction of the wind as you trail, and if at any time it cools a different side of the finger, you will know that you are not walking in the same direction as when you left camp and must turn until the wet finger tells you which way to go. The wind is a good guide so long as it keeps blowing in the same direction as when you left camp.


Use of Compass

Should you be on the trail and sudden storm-clouds appear, the sun cannot help you find your way; the shadows have gone. Moss on tree-trunks is not an infallible guide and you must turn to the compass to show the way, but unless you understand its language you will not know what it is telling you. Learn the language before going to camp; it is not difficult.

Mariner's Compass. Mariner's Compass.

Hold the compass out in a level position directly in front of you; be sure it is level; then decide to go north. Consult the compass and ascertain in which direction the north lies. The compass needle points directly north with the north end of the needle; this end is usually black, sometimes pearl. Let your eye follow straight along the line pointed out by the needle; as you look ahead select a landmark—tree, rock, pond, or whatever may lie in that direction. Choose an object quite a distance off on the imaginary line, go directly toward it, and when intervening objects obscure the landmark, refer to your compass. If you have turned from the pathway north, face around and readjust your steps in the right direction. Do not let over two minutes pass without making sure by the compass that you are going on the right path, going directly north.

Common Compass. Common Compass.

Practise using the compass for a guide until you understand it; have faith in it and you may fearlessly trust to its guidance. Try going according to various points of the compass: suppose you wish to go southeast, the compass tells you this as plainly as the north; try it. Naturally, if you go to the southeast away from camp, returning will be in exactly the opposite direction, and coming back to camp you must walk northwest. After learning to go in a straight line, guided entirely by the compass, try a zigzag path. A group of girls will find it good sport to practise trailing with the compass, and they will at the same time learn how to avoid being lost and how to help others find their way.

It is possible to
Make a Compass
of Your Watch

Besides keeping you company with its friendly nearness, its ticking and its ready answers to your questions regarding the time, a watch in the woods and fields has another use, for it can be used as a compass. It will show just where the south is, then by turning your back on the south you face the north, and on your right is the east and on your left the west. These are the rules:

With your watch in a horizontal position point the hour-hand to the sun, and if before noon, half-way between the hour hand and 12 is due south. If it is afternoon calculate the opposite way. For instance, if at 8 a. m. you point the hour-hand to the sun, 10 will point to the south, for that is half-way between 8 and 12. If at 2 p. m. you point the hour-hand to the sun, look back to 12, and half the distance will be at 1, therefore 1 points to the south.

An easy way to get the direction of the sun without looking directly at it is by means of the shadow of a straight, slender stick or grass stem thrown on the horizontal face of your watch. Hold the stick upright with the lower end touching the watch at the point of the hour-hand, then turn the watch until the shadow of the stick falls along the hour-hand. This will point the hand undeviatingly toward the sun.

Mountain Climbing

The campers should go together to climb the mountain, never one girl alone.

Before starting, find a strong stick to use as a staff; stow away some luncheon in one of your pockets; see that your camera is in perfect order, ready to use at a moment's notice; that your water-proof match-box is in your pocket filled with safety matches, your pocket-knife safe with you, also watch and compass, and that the tin cup is on your belt. Your whistle being always hung around your neck will, of course, be there as usual.

When you are ready, stand still and look about you once more to make sure of your bearings; close your eyes and tell yourself exactly what you have seen. After leaving camp and arriving at the foot of the mountain, take your bearings anew; then look up ahead and select a certain spot which you wish to reach on the upward trail. Having this definite object in view will help in making better progress and save your walking around in a circle, which is always the tendency when in a strange place and intervening trees or elevations obstruct the view, or when not sure of the way and trying to find it.

Begin blazing the trail at your first step up the mountain side. Even though there may be a trail already, you cannot be sure that it will continue; it is much safer to depend upon your own blazing.

Often in trailing along the mountain you will find huge rocks and steep depressions, or small lakes which you cannot cross over but must go around, and in so doing change your direction, perhaps strike off at an angle. Before making the detour, search out some large landmark, readily recognized after reaching the other side of the obstruction, a tall, peculiarly shaped tree or other natural feature. Now is the time to try earnestly to keep the landmark in sight as long as possible and to be able to recognize it when you see it again. Watch your compass and the sun that you may continue in the right direction after circling the obstruction. Go slow in climbing, take your time and don't get out of breath.

On many mountains the possibility of unexpected fogs exists, and safety requires that the party be linked together with a soft rope; the same precaution should be taken when the trail is very rough, steep, and rocky. The camper at the head of the line should tie the rope in a bow-line around her waist, with knot on left side, and eight or ten feet from her the next girl should link herself to the rope in the same manner; then another girl, and another, until the entire party is on the rope.

The leader starts on the trail and the others, holding fast to their staffs, carefully follow, each one cautious to keep the rope stretching out in front of her rather taut; then if one girl stumbles the others brace themselves and keep her from falling.

When descending the mountain, be careful to get a firm footing. Instead of facing the trail, it is safer to turn sideways, so that you can place the entire foot down and not risk the toes only, or the heels. Often coming down either a steep hill or a mountain is more difficult than going up.


Lost in the Woods

It is not at all probable that you will lose your way while on the trail, but if you should find yourself lost in the woods or in the open, the first thing to do is to remember that a brave girl does not get into a panic and so rob herself of judgment and the power to think clearly and act quickly. Believe firmly that you are safe, then sit down quietly and think out a plan of finding your way. Try to remember from which direction you have come and to recall landmarks. If you cannot do this, do not be frightened and do not allow any thought of possible harm to get a foothold in your mind. If there is a hill near, from which you can see any distance, climb that and get an outlook. You may be able to see the smoke of your camp-fire, which, after all, cannot be so far away. You may find a landmark that you do remember.

If you see nothing which you can recognize, make a signal flag of your handkerchief and put it up high, as high as you can. Your friends will be looking for that. Then give the lost signal, one long blast with your whistle, and after a short pause follow with two more blasts in quick succession. If you have no whistle shout, loud and long, then wait a while, keeping eyes and ears open to see and hear answering signals.

If there is none, again shout the lost signal and continue the calls every little while for quite a time. Another call for help is the ascending smoke of three fires. This, of course, is for daylight. Build your fires some distance apart, twenty-five feet or more, that the smoke from each may be clearly seen alone, not mingled with the rest. Aim to create smoke rather than flame; a slender column of smoke can be seen a long distance, therefore the fire need not be large.

Choose for your fires as clear a space and as high an elevation as can be found, and in the relief and excitement of rescue do not forget to extinguish every spark before leaving the ground.

If you decide to keep moving, blaze your trail as you go, so that it may be followed and also that you may know if you cross it again yourself. You can blaze the trail by breaking or bending small branches on trees and bushes, or by small strips torn from your handkerchief and tied conspicuously on twigs. If you are where there are no trees or undergrowth, build small piles of stones or little hills of earth at intervals to mark your trail.

If night overtakes you, look for the North Star. That will help if you know at what point of the compass your camp lies, and if you remember whether your course in leaving camp was to the north, south, east, or west, you can calculate pretty accurately whether the camp is to the north, south, east, or west of you.

In case the night must be spent where you are, go about making a shelter, prepare as comfortable a bed as possible, and do not be afraid. You will probably be found before morning, and you must be found in good physical condition.

If you can kindle a fire, do it; that will help to guide your friends and will ward off wild creatures that might startle you. Keep your fire going all night and take care that it does not spread.

It is better to remain quietly in one spot all night than to wander about in the dark and perhaps stumble upon dangerous places. If, when you find the points of the compass by the North Star, you mark them plainly on a stone or fallen log, they will be a ready guide for you as soon as daylight breaks.

The last word on this subject is:
Do not be afraid.


To Find Your Way by the North Star

At night you will have the same reliable guide that has ever been the mariner's friend, and if you do not know this star guide, lose no time in finding it.

Polaris or pole-star is known generally as North Star, and this star is most important to the outdoor girl. At all times the North Star marks the north, its position never changes, and seeing that star and knowing it, you will always know the points of the compass. Face the North Star and you face the north. At your right hand is the east, at your left hand is the west, and at your back is the south.

The North Star.

The North Star.

The North Star does not look very important because it is not very bright or very large, and were it not for the help of the Big Dipper, which every one knows, the North Star would not be easy to find. The diagram given on page 37 shows the relative position of the stars and will help you to find the North Star.

The two stars forming the front side of the bowl of the Great Dipper point almost in a direct line to the North Star, which is the last one in the handle of the Little Dipper, or the tail of the Little Bear, which means the same thing.

Now Let's Find Our Way To Chapter 3